How to Get an EU Passport: Citizenship by Descent, by Country

There’s no such thing as applying for “EU citizenship” directly you become a citizen of one EU member state (Ireland, Italy, Germany, etc.), and that country’s passport comes with treaty rights across the whole EU. Most people qualify one of three ways: citizenship by descent (a parent or grandparent from an EU country), naturalization (typically 5–10 years of legal residence), or investment/residency programs that lead to citizenship later, not immediately. The fastest and cheapest route, when it applies to you, is almost always descent.

I was born in Northern Ireland and became a Canadian immigrant as a child. Being born on the island of Ireland entitled me to Irish citizenship many people born in Northern Ireland are British citizens who also qualify. My husband, born in England to Irish parents, got his Irish citizenship by descent; our son qualified through us. Holding Irish, British, and Canadian nationality has made living and traveling across Europe far simpler than it would otherwise be.

An EU passport is often just the first step. For what building an actual life somewhere new looks like day to day, see my full Living Abroad Guide.

Last fact-checked: August 2026. Citizenship law changes some countries covered here (Italy in particular) have changed significantly in the past year. Always confirm current rules on the relevant government’s official site before relying on anything below.

What an EU Passport Actually Is

An EU passport is issued by one of the 27 individual member states, not by “the EU” as a body. It confirms citizenship of that specific country, and citizenship of any EU country carries the same core treaty rights across all of them.

Design and standards. All EU passports meet common security and biometric standards a chip carrying a facial image and two fingerprints (children under 12, and people physically unable to provide prints, are exempt; Denmark and Ireland don’t require fingerprints at all). The photo follows a standard size, and the cover carries “European Union,” the issuing country’s name, and the biometric symbol.

EU is not the same as Schengen. Most EU countries are in the Schengen Area (no routine border checks between them), but not all Ireland, for instance, is EU but not Schengen. A few non-EU countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland) are in Schengen despite not being in the EU. For the full breakdown of what that means for travel, see my Schengen Area rules guide.

The Real Benefits of an EU Passport

• Free movement. Live, work, and study in any EU member state without a separate visa or permit and family members can often gain residence rights too.
• Political rights. Vote and stand in European Parliament and local elections in your EU country of residence.
• Consular protection. If your own country has no embassy where you’re traveling, any EU state’s embassy can help.
• No 90-day clock. As EU citizens ourselves, we’ve housesat and stayed long-term across Europe without ever worrying about the 90/180-day limit that applies to non-EU visitors one of the most underrated everyday benefits.
• Post-Brexit note: UK citizens lost EU free movement entirely, unless they also hold an EU nationality (Irish, for many).

The Main Pathways to European Citizenship

• Citizenship by descent (jus sanguinis) a parent, grandparent, or sometimes more distant ancestor from an EU country. Rules vary enormously by country: generational limits, required registrations, and whether your ancestor kept their citizenship all matter. Often the fastest route, when you qualify.
• Naturalization typically 5–10 years of legal residence, plus language and integration requirements. Some countries require renouncing other citizenships; most don’t.
• Marriage or registered partnership doesn’t grant automatic citizenship anywhere, but usually shortens the residence period before naturalization, and grants family residence rights.
• Restitution or rehabilitation several countries, notably Germany and Austria, offer restored citizenship to descendants of people who lost it due to Nazi-era persecution.
• Investment-based residency (“golden visa”) grants residence, not citizenship. Naturalization, if it comes at all, follows years later and under separate rules.

How Citizenship by Descent Actually Works, Step by Step

1. Confirm eligibility in law. Check the target country’s official government site directly don’t rely on forums or secondhand summaries. Look for generational limits, required registrations, and whether your ancestor’s citizenship was ever lost.
2. Map your lineage. Write out the full chain from your EU-national ancestor to you: names, birthplaces, dates, marriages, naturalizations, and any name changes.
3. Gather civil records. Long-form birth, marriage, and death certificates for every generation in the chain; naturalization or renunciation records; court or name-change documents; sometimes church records for older generations.
4. Legalize and translate. Foreign documents usually need an apostille and certified translation into the target country’s language.
5. Complete any required registrations. Some countries require registering a birth abroad before citizenship can pass to the next generation Ireland’s Foreign Births Register is a classic example for grandchildren.
6. File with the right authority. If you’re abroad, that’s usually the consulate or embassy; if you’re in-country, the municipality, civil registry, or Interior Ministry. Book appointments early waits are long almost everywhere.
7. Wait, and keep your documents current. Processing runs from months to years. Some certified copies expire keep them updated if your case drags on.

One trap worth knowing: in some countries (Poland and Lithuania are known examples), your ancestor naturalizing in another country can break your eligibility entirely. Pin down the exact dates and legal effect before assuming you qualify.

Country-by-Country Guide: Citizenship by Descent

Ireland: If a parent was born in Ireland, you’re already an Irish citizen. If only a grandparent was born there, you generally register your birth in the Foreign Births Register (FBR) before you can pass citizenship to your own children. Process: prove your lineage with civil records, apply for the FBR if it applies to you, then apply for a passport.

If citizenship by descent isn’t an option for you, Ireland also offers a route to residency for retirees who can show sufficient independent income to support themselves without working see my full guide to retiring in Ireland for the specific income thresholds and application process.The Immigrant Investor Programme (Ireland’s own golden visa) was formally closed to new applicants in February 2023.

United Kingdom: No longer in the EU a UK passport doesn’t provide EU free movement. UK citizens who also hold an EU nationality (Irish, for many) retain EU rights through that second citizenship.

Italy (rules significantly tightened in 2025 see full detail below): Italy ended unlimited-generation transmission with a 2025 law reform. You now generally need a parent or grandparent born in Italy, a parent or grandparent who held exclusively Italian citizenship at your birth or their death, or a parent who legally resided in Italy for at least two years after becoming a citizen and before your birth. If your application was already filed by late March 2025, or you’d already been recognized before the reform, the old rules may still apply to your case. This is actively contested in Italy’s courts, so verify your specific situation directly rather than assuming.

Poland: You may confirm Polish citizenship if your ancestor was a Polish citizen and never lost it under historic law pay close attention to pre- and post-1951 rules specifically. You’re confirming existing citizenship here, not applying for something new.

Germany: By descent, where citizenship was retained through the generations. A separate restoration route (Basic Law Article 116(2)) exists for descendants of people stripped of citizenship for political, racial, or religious reasons between 1933 and 1945 with no generational cap, and no residence or language requirement. A related provision (§15 of the German Nationality Act) covers other historically excluded groups. Both allow dual citizenship. Proving a persecution-based claim typically means documenting your ancestor’s citizenship and its removal, evidence of the persecution itself, and a full, unbroken lineage down to you.

Austria: A similar restoration route exists for descendants of Nazi-era victims who lost Austrian citizenship, with dual citizenship typically allowed. no classic golden visa, but Germany has a self-employment residence permit route tied to business investment and job creation; not investment-for-residency in the same sense as the others.

Greece: Citizenship through a Greek parent; sometimes through a grandparent if the right municipal registrations exist. You’ll need records from Greek municipal archives and may need to register historic civil events yourself.

Spain (more routes available than commonly assumed see full detail below): You qualify automatically if a parent was a Spanish citizen at your birth, if both parents were born in Spain, or through adoption by a Spanish citizen before age 18. A special grandparent route exists for descendants of Spanish women who lost their nationality specifically through marrying a non-Spaniard, before the 1978 Constitution. If a parent or grandparent was Spanish but you don’t qualify by birth directly, as little as one year of legal residence in Spain can open a fast-track path notably shorter than standard naturalization. Note: the Sephardic descendants’ window has closed; don’t confuse it with the routes above, which remain open.

Portugal: Children of Portuguese citizens generally qualify; grandchildren may, under defined conditions. The Sephardic route still technically exists but has tightened considerably, with stricter proof requirements.

Hungary: Restoration is possible if you or an ancestor held Hungarian citizenship; basic language knowledge is sometimes required.

Lithuania: Restoration for descendants of Lithuanian citizens who left before 1940, generally tied to WWII-era occupation some voluntary emigration cases are excluded.

Latvia: Restoration for descendants of pre-war Latvian citizens, including those who fled occupation, subject to conditions verified through the Office of Citizenship and Migration Affairs.

Estonia: Restoration for descendants of pre-occupation Estonian citizens; adult dual citizenship may be restricted, so confirm current rules directly.

France: Generally through a French parent who retained citizenship France has specific rules and registration timelines for children born abroad.

Malta: Descent can pass across generations where citizenship was retained and births properly registered. You’ll need to prove a direct line of descent through civil records.

Always verify current law on the relevant official government site rules and documentation standards change, sometimes significantly, as Italy and Spain both show.

Applying for Italian Records (Jure Sanguinis)

1. Identify the comune (municipality) of birth or marriage, using the Portale Antenati or FamilySearch to narrow down the town if you’re not sure.
2. Request civil status documents from the Ufficio di Stato Civile birth records as “copia integrale” or “estratto con paternità e maternità,” marriage and death similarly.
3. For records older than Italy’s civil registration system, contact the parish or diocesan archives for baptism and marriage entries directly.
4. Foreign records need an apostille and certified translation; records issued by an Italian comune usually don’t need an apostille when used with other Italian authorities.

General Residency Pathways (Not Just Citizenship)

Citizenship isn’t always the goal sometimes long-term legal residence is what you actually need, whether as a step toward eventual citizenship or as an end in itself. This page covers Portugal and Cyprus in detail below; for the other countries covered here, see the dedicated guide, since visa types, healthcare access, and cost of living all deserve more room than a summary table can give them:

Become a Digital Nomad in Europe — country-by-country digital nomad visa options

Moving to Italy — covers EU routes, the jus sanguinis descent process, investor and digital nomad visas

Ultimate Guide to Moving to Spain — visa requirements for non-EU and UK citizens, healthcare, residence permits

Moving to Greece — visas and cost of living for US, UK, and EU citizens

A Move to France — visas, housing, healthcare, and taxes for expats

Living in Croatia — visas, healthcare, cost of living, and settling in

Pros and Cons of Living in Austria

Retire in Andalucía — Spain-specific retirement guidance with Ultimate Guide to Retiring in Spain and Living in Barcelona.

Portugal

Non-EU citizens generally need a valid entry visa, proof of stable income or savings, a clean criminal background check, valid health insurance, and proof of accommodation. The main pathways:

• D7 Visa for retirees or anyone with passive foreign income (pensions, rental income)
• Digital Nomad Visa for remote workers employed outside Portugal
• Golden Visa residence through qualifying investment (fund subscriptions, job creation, research or cultural support the real estate route has been significantly curtailed; check the official Portugal Golden Visa portal for current investment options)
• Work or Study Visas tied to a local job offer or university enrollment. Read all about living on the Algarve of Portugal.

Cyprus

Several distinct pathways exist, managed through the Civil Registry and Migration Department:

• Permanent Residence by Investment a fast-track route through real estate, commercial property, or local company/fund investment, with relatively light physical-presence requirements (visiting roughly once every two years)
• Temporary Residence Permit (“Pink Slip”) aimed at non-EU nationals and remote workers wanting to live in Cyprus on an annually renewable basis, requiring proof of stable foreign income and local housing
• EU citizens can live and register in Cyprus freely, gaining permanent registration after five consecutive years of legal residence

Investment minimums and income thresholds for both countries change; check the official government portals linked above rather than relying on any figure you find elsewhere, including here.

Golden Visa and Investment-Based Residency, Generally

These programs grant residence, not immediate citizenship. After maintaining that residence and meeting a country’s legal requirements often several years, plus language and integration criteria you may become eligible for permanent residence and, eventually, naturalization, if the country allows dual citizenship and you meet every condition.

Portugal investment options have shifted substantially away from real estate; verify current options on the official portal.

Greece real estate investment remains an option, with thresholds that vary by region and have changed recently; check with the Hellenic Ministry of Migration and Asylum.

Spain a residence-by-investment framework has existed, including real estate, but policy is actively under review; check the official migration portal before making any plans around it.

Italy an Investor Visa route exists via qualifying investments (innovative startups, strategic funds, government bonds or donations).

Malta the Permanent Residence Programme (MPRP) combines financial contributions, due diligence, and property investment (lease or purchase). This is distinct from Malta’s citizenship-by-investment framework, which requires actual residence (12 or 36 months) and rigorous due diligence it is not a straightforward purchase of citizenship.

Cyprus ended its citizenship-by-investment program entirely in 2020. EU institutions have generally discouraged “citizenship for sale” programs since.

Hungary: The Hungary Guest Investor Programme (often called the Golden Visa) grants a 10-year renewable residence permit to non-EU/EEA citizens who invest a minimum of €250,000. The program allows visa-free travel within the Schengen Area and includes the investor’s spouse and minor children.

Latvia offers a formal Golden Visa (temporary residency by investment) starting at a €50,000 business investment or €250,000 real estate purchase.

Lithuania (temporary residency by investment) starting at a €50,000 business investment or €250,000 real estate purchase, while Lithuania does not have a classic passive golden visa but provides temporary residency through local company establishment or business investment starting at roughly €14,000 to €50,000.

Other EEA and Swiss Passports

Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland aren’t EU members, but their citizens have mobility rights with the EU through separate treaties their passports simply aren’t EU passports. Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein are all in Schengen, so their citizens travel passport-free within it regardless.

Holding Multiple Passports

Most European countries allow dual citizenship, though rules vary restitution and descent routes are more commonly dual-citizenship-friendly than standard naturalization. Confirm the rules of both your existing country and your target country before you start; some naturalization routes still require renouncing prior citizenship.

If you hold both an EU and a non-EU passport, use the EU one when entering or leaving the EU/Schengen it gets you free movement and avoids the non-EU entry requirements (including ETIAS, once it’s actually operational) that apply to your other passport.

Applying for or Renewing a Passport You’re Already Entitled To

If you already hold citizenship of an EU country, apply for or renew your passport through that country’s embassy or consulate in your country of residence. Fees and processing times vary by country and change always check the issuing state’s official consular page for current details rather than relying on a fixed number.

Frequently Asked Questions

How does an American or Canadian get an EU passport?
You first qualify for an EU country’s citizenship by descent, by naturalization after a period of legal residence, through marriage-facilitated naturalization, or through a restitution law if one applies to your family. There’s no “EU-level” application; it always runs through one specific member state.

Which countries offer the most accessible descent routes?
It depends entirely on your family history. Ireland (a parent or grandparent born on the island) remains one of the more straightforward routes. Italy used to be as well, but its rules tightened significantly in 2025 you now generally need a parent or grandparent actually born in Italy, not just an ancestor further back. Spain also offers more routes than people often realize, including a grandmother-specific clause and a residency fast-track for descendants who don’t qualify by birth alone.

Do golden visa programs give me a passport right away?
No. They’re residence permits. Only after maintaining that residence and meeting a country’s legal requirements which usually takes years and includes language or civic criteria might you become eligible for citizenship, and only if the country allows dual nationality and you meet every condition.

Can I hold dual citizenship?
Many European countries allow it, particularly for descent or restitution claims, though some restrict it for standard naturalization. Confirm both countries’ current rules before you begin the process.

Which countries currently include real estate as an investment option?
Greece still does. Spain’s real estate route exists but is under active policy review. Portugal has sharply curtailed its real estate pathway. Cyprus’s real estate route leads to residency, not citizenship, since its citizenship-by-investment program ended in 2020. Always check the relevant official portal these change often.

Can I live anywhere in the EU with an EU passport?
Yes, under free movement rules, though some specific benefits still carry conditions.

Can I get permanent residency anywhere in the EU?
If you’re already an EU citizen, you gain the right to permanent residence in another EU country after five years of continuous, legal residence there under free movement rules. Some benefits may still have conditions attached, but you can’t be required to hold a separate work permit.

Beyond the Passport: What Moving Abroad Actually Involves

Getting the right to live somewhere is only ever the first step. What actually determines whether a move works for us, and for most people we’ve talked to is everything that comes after: finding housing, understanding a new healthcare system, working out what things really cost, and building a life that doesn’t just look good on paper.

If you’re weighing where to go rather than locked into one country by descent or family ties, Best Countries for Americans to Move To is a useful starting point, covering more than a dozen destinations at once. For the UK specifically, Move to UK from US and 39 Pros and Cons of Living in the UK cover both the immigration process and the honest day-to-day reality. Further afield, we’ve also covered living in Barcelona, Sweden, the Algarve in Portugal, and even Canada and the Yucatán in Mexico for readers looking outside Europe entirely.

None of these guides are theoretical. They’re written from having actually done it, or from the real experiences of people who have including the 23 personal stories we’ve collected from others who made the leap. If a passport by descent isn’t in the cards for you, that doesn’t close the door on living abroad; it just means the visa route, rather than the citizenship route, is where your planning should start.

Final Checklist

1. Confirm your specific eligibility descent, residence, marriage, or restitution directly on the relevant government’s official site.
2. Map your full lineage and start gathering civil records early; apostilles and certified translations take time.
3. Book consular appointments well in advance, and follow the exact document checklist your specific consulate provides.
4. If you hold dual nationality, use your European passport to enter and exit the EU/Schengen, avoiding the non-EU entry rules (ETIAS, EES) that apply to your other passport.

In short: getting an EU passport comes down to proving a lawful route to citizenship most often through descent, sometimes through residence and naturalization, occasionally through marriage or a specific restitution law. Golden visa programs can be a useful way to secure residence first, but they lead to citizenship only eventually, and only if you meet every subsequent requirement. Because the rules genuinely do change Italy and Spain both shifted meaningfully in the past year alone rely on official government sources, keep your documentation airtight, and plan your timeline with real slack built in.

If you’re considering slow travel or relocating within Europe with a pet, see my guide on moving a pet to Europe, covering paperwork, ferries, road trips, and border requirements.

This is one part of the full Europe Travel Resource Guide see also Travel Scams in Europe for protecting your money while traveling.

Disclaimer: This article is general information, not legal advice. Immigration and citizenship laws change always verify current rules on official government sites and with a qualified professional before making decisions based on this content.